ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse. UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to decision-makers. By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time of project implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and regulations. Aims of EIA ·  to provide decision-makers with analysis of the total environmentso that decisions can be made based on as nearly complete and balanced information as possible; ·  to assess and present intangible/unquantifiable effectsthat are not adequately addressed by cost/benefit analysis and other technical reports; ·  to provide information to the publicon a proposal; ·  to formalise the consideration of alternatives to a proposalbeing considered, in order that the least environmentally harmful means of achieving the given objective can be chosen; ·  to improve the design of new developments and safeguard the environmentthrough the application of mitigation and avoidance measures Environmental Impact Assessment Principles and Process The eight guiding principles... There are eight guilding principles that govern the entire process of EIA and they are as follows: Participation: An appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested parties. Transparency: All assessment decisions and their basis should be open and accessible. Certainty: The process and timing of the assessment should be agreed in advanced and followed by all participants. Accountability: The decision-makers are responsible to all parties for their action and decisions under the assessment process. Credibility: Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity. Cost-effectiveness: The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at the least cost to the society. Flexibility: The assessment process should be able to adapt to deal efficiently with any proposal and decision making situation. Practicality: The information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily usable in decision making and planning. EIA Process Project screening Not all development projects require EIA. Project screening will help identify the ones that actually do. Here in this section describes the various screening criteria. Scoping The process of scoping helps determine the coverage or 'scope' of the EIA. The methods of scoping is elaborated in this section. Baseline data collection A brief explanation on the concept of baseline data collection and its purposes. Identification of environmental impacts Described here are the various types of environmental impacts of development projects both beneficial and adverse. Impact prediction comparison of alternatives and determination of significance This sections covers the considerations for impact prediction, uncertainties in impact prediction and comparison of alternatives for impact prediction. Mitigation measures Described briefly under this section are the concept and objectives, types and interesting points, of mitigation measures. Public consultation and participation Public participation is a necessary component of the EIA. "Who are the public?", "How to involve them?", and "What are the benefits/disbenefits?" The answers can be found under this section. Environmental monitoring As one of the most important aspects of EIA, "Environmental Monitoring" is defined here along with explanations on monitoring principles, types and institutional aspects. Environmental auditing You will find under this section, the various types of Environmental Auditing and when it should be carried out during the EIA. EIA Benefits and Flaws Benefits Flaws Provides systematic methods of impact assessment Time-consuming Estimates the cost/benefit trade-off of alternative actions Costly Facilitates the public participation Little public participation in actual implementation Provides an effective mechanism for coordination environmental integration negotiations feed back Unavailability for reliable data (mostly in developing countries) Top-level decision making Too focused on scientific analysis(sometimes) Triggers an institutional building Poor presentation of EIA report(bulky volumes, scientific explanation, difficult to understand) Achieve a balance between the impact of developmental and environmental concern Compliance monitoring after EIA is seldom carried out  The relevant EIA activities for each stage in the project cycle are A. Project concept/identification At the initial stage of the project, quick environmental overview or preliminary EIA can indicate the environmental implications of any proposed alternatives. B. Pre-feasibility stage This stage identifies issues and impacts for investigation, which is equivalent to 'Scoping' C. Feasibility stage EIA study is carried out during this stage. D. Project appraisal and decision A decision on whether a project is feasible or not will be made at this stage. E. Implementation of the project If the project is feasible, it will be implemented. EIA report will be used as guideline during this phase. F. Management of EIA study Conducting an EIA report that can be understood by all the related stakeholders.   Project Screening Development projects have biophysical as well as social and economic impacts. Sufficient understanding of these factors are necessary for the initial screening decision. It is therefore, important to establish mechanisms by identifying projects which requires EIA, and this process of selection of project is referred to as "Screening". Screening process divides the project proposals within the following three categories project clearly requiring an EIA project not requiring an EIA project for which the need of application of an EIA is not clear Screening criteria for projects requiring EIA To further assist in the initial screening decision, development projects can be divided into two broad categories... Threshold criteria Impact criteria Size Location Output Cost/finance* Environmental effects etc. Significant but easily identifiable impacts Significant impacts Sensitive area Threshold Criteria This method of screening establishes the thresholds for key features of a project, or an environmental parameter which exceeded the thresholds, would require an EIA. Such thresholds can range from environmental factors such as the size of agricultural land used for a development project, location, cost, outputs, infrastructure demands, national standards for air, water and noise. Impact Criteria These impacts are divided into three broad categories, reflecting various degrees of potential impact on the environment, determined on the basis of past experience with similar forms of development. Proposal likely to have significant but easily identifiable adverse impacts on the environment and for which mitigation measures can be readily prescribed. Such project requires Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)report. Proposals which are likely to have significant adverse impact on the environment requires an environmental impact assessment report to be prepared Proposals of projects which are proposed to be located within or near environmentally sensitive areas, are required to have an environmental impact assessment report Scoping Scoping is to determine what should be the coverage or scope of the EIA study for a project proposal as having potentially significant environmental impacts. It also helps in developing and selecting alternatives to the proposed action and in identifying the issues to be considered in an EIA. Aim of scoping... identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA ensure a relevant EIA enable those responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the alternatives and on impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis determine the assessment methods to be used identify all affected interests provide an opportunity for public involvement in determining the factors to be assessed, and facilitate early agreement on contentious issues save time and money establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study Methods of scoping... These steps are described in details below: (a) Making a plan for public Involvement A public involvement or communication plan is one of the most important internal planning tools for those conducting a scoping exercise. The major purpose of scoping at an early stage of project planning is to clearly define all the communities and agencies which should be allowed to influence decisions relating to the proposal. The plan should identify whom to talk to, as well as when and how to undertake the communication exercise. Consent must be obtained from the authorities and government agencies concerned. The project proponent, relevant experts, local people affected, as well as special interest groups should be considered for inclusion in the list of persons to be covered by the communication plan. Methods for involving affected interests and for collecting information include: 1.securing written submissions from relevant government agencies and the public, 2.holding community meetings and public hearings, 3.conducting preliminary field study/observation of sites, and 4.conducting workshops/seminars and establishing an intersectoral task force. (b) Assembling relevant existing Information At this stage, information should be collected on the nature of the project, including preparation of a preliminary list of potential environmental impacts and practical alternatives, accompanied by maps, drawings and other aids for a fuller understanding of the project proposal. This key information will help in formulating appropriate mitigation measures and will form the basis of further discussion. (c) Distribution of Information to affected persons The information collected in step (b) should be processed and assembled into an information package and distributed to appropriate individuals and organizations for comment. Government departments and concerned local and regional officials should be contacted. For major projects, it is always advisable to issue a general public notice inviting public comment and to hold public meetings at the project site as well as at the central level to facilitate consultation and interaction. The project proponents should be responsible for obtaining and making information available to the parties concerned. In cases, where the individuals affected by the proposed project should be identified, information should be sent directly to local community groups. For larger projects, however, where the number of affected persons is not known, the information should be disseminated through the media or by sending the information package to the location within the area, where interested individuals may visit. The village communities concerned should be actively involved and made responsible for the collection of all written or verbal reactions to the project proposal from the local people. (d) Identifying major Issues of public concern All the concerns and issues raised by affected interests, should be compiled into a comprehensive list. Each contribution should be categorised and no issue or concern should be ignored or rejected in the compilation of the list. (e) Evaluating the significance of Issues on the basis of available Information Once the issues have been identified and grouped, their scientific validity needs to be carefully evaluated. If certain questions of a technical nature remain unresolved, a discussion panel or workshop can be organised at an appropriate venue to resolve the problem. (f) Establishing priorities for environmental assessment Although grouping of the issues is undertaken in step (d), a more detailed exercise should be conducted at this stage. Issues to which immediate solutions can be provided or issues which have no relevance to the proposed project should be dropped. The key issues remaining should be arranged in order of priority. (g) Developing a strategy for addressing priority issues Issues to which immediate solutions can be provided -- such as suggesting feasible alternatives or mitigation measures that can be implemented at an early stage -- should be removed from the list. For those issues which need further information in order to be resolved, a terms of reference (TOR) should be prepared in order to define guidelines for further study. The extent of information required for a detailed EIA depends upon the type, level, and magnitude of the project concerned. Baseline Data Collection baseline" refers to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and economic settings proposed project area. Normally, information is obtained from secondary sources when there exists a facility of database, or the acquisition of new information through field samplings. The task of collecting baseline data starts right from the period of project inception, however, a majority of this task may be undertaken during scoping. Identification of Environmental Impacts: Concepts and Methods Type of Impacts and their Consideration. A. Biological and Physio-chemical Impacts. Impacts in this category relate to effects on biological resources such as vegetation, wildlife, crops, and aquatic life. Impacts affecting soil and land forms, or creation of a propensity for soil erosion, floods and sedimentation, would be considered as physical impacts. Chemical impacts relate to project activities that cause a chemical change in air/water/soil quality. Smoke emitted from a brick factory, for example, may change the amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2) content of ambient air, while untreated effluent discharged directly into a river by a paper factory may change the chemical characteristics of the river. The biological component covers all elements, including different forms plant life, structures, functions and their interaction with other components of an ecosystem. Another component of a biological system is the animal life, which ranges from microscopic protozoans to large animals such as elephants occupying different niches in trophic-dynamic systems. The biological systems interact with physical elements such as air, water, soil, rocks and solar radiation, giving rise to a system known as an ecosystem. The material-cycling, assimilative, and productive roles of an ecosystem are the process that maintain the balance of nature. However, human activities which are intended primarily for self benefit tend to destroy the natural balance, consequently giving rise to man made disasters. B. Social Impact A study of socio-economic impacts would examine project action that alters the existing social and economical condition of communities within or around the project location. Socio-economic impacts may prove either adverse or beneficial. For example, an expanded irrigation facility designed to enhance agricultural production would be beneficial; while the project might also result in water-logging that could produce a salinity problem with is adverse consequencies. Social impacts can be subdivided into the following: demographic impacts - such as displacement and relocation effects; and changes in population characteristics,  socio-economic impacts - including income and income multiplier effects, employment rates and patterns, prices of local goods and services, and taxation effects,  cultural impacts - traditional patterns of life and work, family structures and authority, religious and tribal factors, archaeological features, social networks and community cohesion,  institutional impacts - including demands on the government and social service, NGOs housing, schools, criminal justice, health, welfare and recreation, and gender impacts - the implications of development projects on the roles of women in society, income-generating opportunities, access to resources, employment opportunities and equity.  C. Cultural Impacts ·         Project impacts on cultural heritage should be considered. Areas of study should include historic sites, religious shrines or areas, or traditional practices that may be affected. ·         Cultural resources refer to archaeological, historical, religious, cultural and aesthetic values. Cultural resources are part of the resource base, it is therefore important that the development options, under consideration are screened for potential impact on cultural properties. In the process of conducting EIA, it is essential; to check; whether or not the area contains UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which now number over 300 sites recognised as having outstanding universal value. The national inventories of cultural resources, which can provide important data. Additionally, agencies like museums, universities, departments of archaeology, and other relevant agencies should be consulted. A project that involves a large-scale modification or disturbance of land and is located in an area where there are cultural resources, requires an intensive survey by qualified archaeologists. On the basis of findings of intensive survey the decision-makers have to decide, whether or not the project should go ahead ·         or whether to adopt project alternatives or devise mitigation measures to be adopted, along with institutional training and monitoring requirements, etc. In all these processes, involvement of local communities is necessary. D. Health Impact ·         Traditionally, health issues have been given little attention in EIAs. Even when social impacts were being investigated, the effects of a proposal on individual mental and physiological well-being (health status and trends) were often omitted or treated in an unsatisfactory manner. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as a state of social and individual well-being and not just the absence of disease. If this view is accepted, then the links between health and social impacts are apparent. Often, not always, health impacts depend on environmental impacts, such change in habitat causing increased in vector or the likelihood of contact between the vectors and humans. The direct relationship between biophysical change, and incidence of disease may be one of the important reasons. However, there are disease pathways, which occur solely, within a social context. A common example is an increased incidence of sexually transmitted disease resulting from the influx of a large construction labour force. ·         E. Add economical Key elements for assessing impact significance are: (a) Ecological Criteria relating to ecological importance include aspects of the environment critical to ecosystem functioning as well as those valued for aesthetic or sentimental reasons: effects on plant and animal habitat,  rare and endangered species,  ecosystem resilience, sensitivity, bio-diversity and carrying capacity, and  viability of local species populations.  (b) Social and Economical Biophysical impacts are translated into effects on factors valued by humans. The following concerns influence the perception of environmental value: effects on human health and safety,  potential loss of species with current or potential value, or commercially available production (farmland),  recreational or aesthetic value,  demands on public resources such as social service,  demands on transportation and other infrastructures, and demographic effects.  (c) Environmental Standards Environmental standards are among the most common means for assessing significance. These are criteria designed to contain certain environmental conditions within specified limits believed to be requisite to achieve social objectives (usually health related). Examples are limits on effluent discharge concentrations, clean air standards, water quality standards, etc.   Mitigation Measures Mitigation measures are recommended actions to reduce, avoid or offset the potential adverse environmental consequences of development activities The objective of mitigation measures is to maximise project benefits and minimise undesirable impacts. Mitigation measures   requires funding for which implementation of the proposed should be estimated and included in the EIA report Mitigation measures   should be integrated in the project design so that these measures may automatically form a part of the construction and operational phases of the project Mitagation measures is not limited to one point in the EIA process. At any time, during project implementation, new types of impacts can be identified and appropriate mitigation measures should be proposed for addressing them Link between mitigation and monitoring Mitigation measures are of no value unless they are implemented, hence, they should be devised with monitoring in mind. Public Consultation and Participation Need for stakeholder involvement The involvement of the "public", or often referred to as "stakeholders", is a vital component in successful EIA. Local people: individuals communities/villages traditional authorities e.g. village leaders Project beneficiaries:      not necessarily have to be local NGOs: those which are active in local area or have interest on natural resources/social welfare  interested parties in the country of any external financing agency Voluntary organizations: local community development or users groups kinship societies recreational groups neighborhood associations labor unions gender groups ethnic organizations cooperatives Private sector: business interest groups trade associations professional societies National/local governments:      those with responsibilities for management of natural resources along with people welfare and those likely to be affected by the development project. Scientist/experts:      those who focus on technical aspects of the project, such as land use planning natural resource management social infrastructure Benefits and disbenefits of stakeholder involvement Experience has shown that there are benefits of stakeholder involvement in EIA process. However, there are difficulties and constraints while formulating plans for public involvement. Both are displayed below. Benefits Disbenefits improved understanding identification of alternative and mitigation measures clarification of trade-offs for each alternative identification of forums to resolve issues induces of transparent procedures  creation of accountability and sense of local ownership difficult to identify all affected parties communication difficulty due to linguistic and cultural diversities illiteracy lack of local knowledge on the projects unequal access to consultations (for example, women) time/cost implications  Methods for stakeholder involvement In participatory decision making, there is no single source of ultimate control or authority. The participating parties must discuss and reach a decision by means of an agreed process. There are numerous methods which can be utilized to involve stakeholders, especially the public, in EIA process 1 Public meetings open with no restriction as to who may attend 2 Advisory panels group of individuals chosen to represent stakeholders meet periodically to assess work done/results obtained advise on future works 3 Public information centres facility in an accessible location contains information on the project members of the public can visit, obtain information and express concerns 4 Interviews open-ended interviews with selected community representatives 5 Questionnairs a written, structured series of questions issued to local people assemble concerns/views/ideas 6 Participatory Appraisal techniques a systematic approach to appraisal based on group inquiry and analysis with multiple and varied inputs   Environmental Monitoring Environmental monitoring is defined as "an activity undertaken to provide specific information on the characteristics and functions of environmental and social variables in space and time." A serious shortcoming of most environmental impact assessment process is the absence of baseline data and impact monitoring during the construction, and operation of large development projects. Without such data, it is impossible to test impact predictions and the success of mitigative measures. Furthermore, the lack of appropriate ecological monitoring, impedes the scientific progress, in impact prediction and assessment, makes it difficult to learn from experiences. Environmental monitoring is therefore one of the most important components of an EIA which is essential for: • ensuring that impacts do not exceed the legal standards, • checking the implementation of mitigation measures in the manner described in the EIA report, and • providing early warning of potential environmental damages. Principles of monitoring Certain principles of EIA monitoring should not be overlooked. If the EIA monitoring process is to generate meaningful information and improve implementation of mitigation measures, it must accomplish the following: Determine the indicators to be used in monitoring activities, Collection of meaningful and relevant information, Application of measurable criteria in relation to chosen indicators, Reviewing objective judgments on the information collected, Draw tangible conclusions based on the processing of information, Making rational decision based on the conclusion drawn, and Recommendation of improved mitigation measures to be undertaken. Types of Monitoring Various types of monitoring activity are currently in practice, and each has some degree of relevance to an EIA study. The main types are briefly described below: Baseline Monitoring a survey should be conducted on basic environmental parameters in the area surrounding the proposed project before construction begins (pre-audit study). Subsequent monitoring can assess the changes in those parameters over time against the baseline. Impact Monitoring the biophysical and socio-economical (including public health)   parameters within the project area, must be measured during the project construction and operational phases in order to detect environmental changes, which may have occurred as a result of project implementation. Compliance Monitoring this form of monitoring employs a periodic sampling method, or continuous recording of specific environmental quality indicators or pollution levels to ensure project compliance with recommended environmental protection standards. Monitoring should be regular and performed over a long period of duration. Interruptions in monitoring may result in generating insufficient data to draw accurate conclusion concerning project impact. The main aim of EIA monitoring is to provide the information required to ensure that project implementation has the least possible negative environmental impacts on the people and ecology. Institutional Aspect Institutional factors determining the effectiveness of monitoring should not be underestimated. There needs to be a firm institutional commitment by the agencies responsible for the monitoring process, particularly in regard to the following: willingness on the part of the institutions involved and organizational personnel to support the monitoring process with the necessary level of resources and authority, maintaining continuity in the monitoring programme, technical capabilities of the personnel involved must be developed, integrity or honesty of the process must be maintained, decisions must be taken based on a thorough review of results, monitoring information must be made available to all agencies concerned, and necessary institutional reforms need to be made within the planning and implementation agencies. EIA monitoring responsibility should be given to monitoring section within the planning divisions of concerned ministries. The costs involved in EIA monitoring should be borned by the project proponent. The reporting structure for EIA monitoring depends upon the nature of the project and the analysis undertaken by the agencies concerned. The information should be organized in a well developed format and presented in regular reports, allowing for easy presentation at decision making and review meetings. The agencies concerned have to oversee enforcement of the decisions taken in the review meeting. If decisions are not implemented by the agencies responsible, legal measures should be initiated to guarantee implementation. Environmental Auditing Auditing refers to the examination and assessment of a certain type of performance. In the case of an EIA, an audit assess the actual environmental impact, the accuracy of prediction, the effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation and enhancement measures, and the functioning of monitoring mechanisms. The audit should be undertaken upon a project run in operation, for some time, and is usually performed once or twice in the entire project cycle. The following types of audit that are recommended to be implemented in different phases of the EIA process: Types of Audit Decision Point Audit examines the effectiveness of EIA as a decision-making tool Implementation Audit ensures that approved conditions have been met Performance Audit examines the responses of agencies concerned with project management Project Impact Audit examines environmental changes arising from project implementation Predictive Technique Audit examines the accuracy and utility of predictive techniques by comparing actual against predicted environmental effects EIA Procedures Audit critically examines the methods and approach adopted during the EIA study Not all the audit types mentioned above are required to be implemented in EIA process. However, at the project approval stage, both project proponent and authorizing agency should considered whether an application of a particular audit technique is likely to result in new information or an improvement in management practices. Particular attention should be given to the project cost-effectiveness of any proposed audit and to technical difficulties likely to be encountered. Since the EIA concept is a relatively recent, the use of environmental audits will play a significant role in evolving a systematic approach of the application of EIA. Environmental auditing should compare monitoring results with information generated during the pre-project period. Comparisons can be made with similar projects or against standard norms. Relating actual impacts with predicted impacts, help in evaluating the accuracy and adequacy of EIA predictions.